Before we attempt any detailed discussion, it is necessary to clarify  some basic concepts concerning words and vocabulary. The term word is an elusive notion, which demands careful consideration at  the outset. The relation between sound and meaning, between sound and form, and between words and vocabulary requires some  discussion as well. In addition, we shall consider a few commonly recognized criteria for vocabulary classification and study each class of words to some extent in this chapter.  

词汇学学习之初，有必要去澄清一些关于词和词汇的基本概念。词语word是一个难以捉摸的概念，需要在开始就认真关注。发音和意义之间的关系，声音和形式之间的关系，词语和词汇之间的关系。另外，我们将注意一些关于词汇分类的共识的规则，并且在本章一定程度上研究每类词语。

1.1 What Is a Word

What is a word? This question has occupied the attention of linguists for ages. Although numerous definitions have been suggested, none of them seem to be perfect. Scholars still do not agree on the definition of the word.    

When we talk about a word, we tend to think in visual terms.  In this line a word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters  printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper. As defined in  terms of spoken language, a word is viewed as a sound or combination of sounds which are made voluntarily with human vocal equipment. According to semanticists, a word is a unit of meaning. Grammarians, however, insist that a word be a free form that can function in a sentence, etc. To sum up, the definition of a word comprises the following points:  

(1) a minimal free form of a language; 

(2) a sound unity;

(3) a unit of meaning;

(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.

Therefore, we can say that a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.

1.1 词是什么？

词是什么？多年来已经引起了语言学家的关注。争议较大。尽管已经提出了很多的定义，没有一个是最好的。学者们仍然没有在词语的定义上达成一致。

当我们谈起一个词语，我们倾向于根据视觉条件来思考。在这个角度，一个词可以被定义为平印在或者写在纸上的字母的有意义的集合。当根据口语定义的时候，词被看成是一个发音或发音的集合，是由人的发音器官自由的发出的。根据语义学家的意见，一个词是一个意义单位。语法学家，则认为一个词是在句中起作用的自由形式等等。总结起来，词语的定义包含以下几点：

（1）语言中一个最小的自由形态

（2）一个发音的集合体

（3）一个意义单位

（4）能独自影响句子的形式（在句子中能独立发挥句法功能的一个形式）

因此，我们能说“词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。”

Words can be simple and complex, yet all must comply with these criteria. Man and fine are simple, but they each have sound, meaning and syntactic function, and each can be used alone in a sentence. Naturally they are words. There are words which are complex such as mis.for.tune and manage.ment. Both are polysyllabic words and can function as ‘subject’, ‘object' and ‘predictive’ in a sentence.Though misfortune can be further divided as mis- and fortune, the former cannot stand alone as a word. Similarly, management can be broken down as manage and -ment, the latter cannot be used freely, either. Blackmail , can be separated into black and mail, , and both can work as independent units in a sentence, the meaning of each, however, is by no means the combination of the two. Black is a colour, opposite to ‘white’, and mail denotes ‘something sent by post’, yet when they are put together, the combined form means ‘compel, compulsion, to make payment or action in return for concealment of discreditable secrets etc.’ Hence blackmail is a different word (COD).

词语可以是简单词或者合成词，然而全部必须服从这些标准。Man和fine是简单词，但是他们都有读音，含义和句法意义。每个都能单独出现在句子中。自然他们都是词。也有像是misfortune和management 这样的复合词，他们都是多音节词，可以用来作主语，宾语和预示性词语。尽管misfortune可以被进一步分为mis和fortune，前者不能作为词单独使用。相

似的，management可以被分成manage和ment，但是后者不能自由使用。Blackmail能被分

为black和mail，而且都能作为独立的句子单位使用，然而词的意思绝对不是两个部分的组合。Black是颜色，反义词是white，mail指示“被邮局运送的东西”，然而当它们放在一起，组合形式意味着“强迫，利用不光彩的秘密要人送钱或行动作为答复”因此blackmail是完全不同的词。

1.2 Sound and Meaning

A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world. Each of the world's cultures has come to agree that certain sounds will represent certain persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities outside the language system.This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself' (Lodwig and Barrett 1973). A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. It is only symbolic. The relationship between them is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to the animal with this cluster of sounds. In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. Woman, for example, becomes " Frau' in German, ' femme' in French and fù nǚ in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound [mi:t]is used to mean meet, meat, mete. Knight and night, though denoting entirely different things, yet have the same sound.  

1.2 读音和意义

词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系。”一只狗被称作“狗”，并不是因为那读音和三个字母能自动的指示那讨论中的动物。它只是象征性的。它们之间的关系是约定俗成的，因为同种语言的人们赞成用一串声音说那动物。在不同的语言中相同的概念可以用不同的声音表达。Woman，在德语中是frau，在法语中是femme。

在中国话中是妇女。另一方面，相同的读音也表示不同的意义，如[mi:t]用来表示会议，和肉和边界。骑士和夜晚，尽管代表不同的事物，仍然有相同的读音。

1.3 Sound and Form

It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form. In other words, the sound should be similar to the form. This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage í.e . Old English. The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.

1.3 读音和形式

通常认为，一种自然形成的语言是其口语形式的书写记录。当然，书写形式应该和口语形式相一致。换而言之，发音应该和形式相一致。这在英语中是相当正确的在早期也就是古代英语中。

那时候的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语。随着语言的发展，越来越多的不同出现在口语和书面语之间。内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。

Another reason is that the Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have  drawn far apart. During the last five hundred years, though the  sounds of speech have changed considerably, there have been no corresponding changes of spelling.

另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。

A third reason is that some of the differences were created by  the early scribes. In the early days the spelling differences did not  matter very much as people were not so used to seeing words in  print, and the spelling was not fixed as it is today. As a result, no  one was quite sure how some English words should be spelled.  Sometimes, people deliberately changed spelling of words either to  make a line even or for easier recognition. Before the printing press  was brought to England, everything was written by hand. Those  scribes, who made a living by writing for other people often worked  in haste to meet the needs of the King, Church, and merchants.  One problem was that several letters written with short vertical  strokes such as i, u, v, m, w and n looked all alike. Consequently,  their handwriting caused misunderstanding. To solve the problem in  part, they changed the letter u to 0 when it came before m, n, or  v. This is how sum, cum, wuman, wunder, munk came to be  written as some , come, ó woman, 2 wonder, monk. At some point,  too, the scribes seem to have decided that no English word should  end in u or v. Thus, in time, an e was added to such words as live,  have, due, and true but not Pronounced (Deighton 1979).

第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同。在早年拼写差别不是问题，因为人们不常看印刷体，而且拼写不像今天这样固定。结果，没人能够肯定一些英语词汇该如何拼写。有时候人们故意把拼写改变为一条直线或者只是为了方便识记。在印刷术传到英国以前，每样东西都是手写的。那些书写员，那些靠为他人写作谋生的人经常繁忙工作，为了应付国王，主教和商人的需要。一个问题是几个字母用简短垂直的笔画书写象是iuvmw和n都看上去很相像。因此，他们的书写体引起了误解。为了部分解决这个问题，他们把mnv之前的u 改成o.这就是sum cum wuman wunder 变成some come woman wonder monk的原因。某些时候，书记员可能认为没有单词应该以u或者v结尾。因此，及时的，e被加入那样的词语象是live have true 但是没有发音。

In the late 1500（1476 by Caxton）, printing became well established. It helped to freeze the spelling of words. The standardization makes spelling sacred. Dictionaries did their share in stopping spelling changes. Meanwhile, sounds continued to change as usual, thus bringing more differences.

到1500年年末，印刷已经变得非常普及。它有助于固定单词的拼写。标准化使得拼写不容改变。字典在固定单词拼写这件事上，也分了一杯羹，也出了他的那份力。同时，读音继续如往常变化，以此带来了更多的不同。

Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of   enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words   from other languages, it borrowed spelling as well. The early borrowings were assimilated and the later ones, however, do not conform to the rules of English Pronunciation and spelling. e.g. stimulus (L), dénouement (F), fiesta (Sp), eureka (Gr), and kimono(Jap).  

最后借词来了，这是丰富英语词汇的重要途径。当英语从其他语言中借鉴单词时，它同样借用了拼写。早期的借词被同化，后来的则不再遵守英语的发音和拼写规则，例如……

The written form of English is, therefore, an imperfect representation of the spoken form. From time to time in history, some British and American scholars have made efforts to reform the English spelling, but with little success. In spite of the differences, at least eighty percent of the English words fit consistent spelling Patterns. And even those spellings that appear to be irregular may have more regularity and usefulness than we realize. In such words hymn, condemn, bomb, for example, the last letter of each is silent. But when these words are extended into longer ones, the silent letters become audible: hymnal , condemnation and bombard. This is a general rule.

英语的书写因此是发音形式不完善的代表。历史上一次又一次，一些英美学者尝试去改革英语的拼写，但是不成功。尽管差别，至少百分之八十的单词读音和拼写一致。就算是那些拼写不规范的也有更多的规律和用处，超出我们的认识。例如，象是hymn condemn bomb 他们的最后一个字母是不发音的。但是当他们扩展为更长的单词时，不发音的字母就要发音，hymnal, condemnation and bombard.这是一条常见的规则。

1.4 Vocabulary

All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The term ‘vocabulary’ is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period, e.g. Old English vocabulary, Middle English vocabulary and Modern English vocabulary. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. English is one of the world's highly developed languages. Naturally the vocabulary is one of the largest and richest. The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over one million words.

1.4 词汇

所有一种语言中的词构成了它的词汇。术语“词汇”使用在不同的情境下。他不仅用来代表一种语言中的单词总数，他还能代表所有特定历史时期的单词，例如古代英语词汇，中古词汇和现代英语词汇。我们也用他来代表所有特定方言的词汇，一本书的词汇，一种学术的词汇和一个人的词汇。英语是高度发展的世界语言之一。自然词汇是最大最丰富的之一。今天的英语笼统估计词汇量超过100万。

1.5 Classification of Words

The English vocabulary consists of words of all kinds. They can be classified by different criteria and for different purposes. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.

1.5 词类

英语词汇由所有种类的词汇组成。它们可以根据不同的标准或者不同的目的进行分类。根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词和非基础词。可以根据概念分成实词和虚词，可以根据来源分为本地词和外来词/借词。

1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary

The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics. 

1.5.1 基础词和非基础词

基础词是几世纪积累的词汇的基础，构成语言的核心。尽管基础词占英语词汇比例小，它仍然是最重要的组成部分。这些词有明显的特征。

1. All national character. Words of the basic word stock de- note the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language. They include words relating to the following respects: Natural phenomena: rain, snow, fire, water, sun, moon , spring, summer, wind, hill; Human body and relations: head, foot, hand, face, father, mother, brother, sister, son, daughter ; Names of plants and animals: oak, pine, grass, pear, apple, tree, horse, cow, sheep, cat, dog, chicken ; Action, size, domain, state: come, go, eat, hear, beat, carry, good, evil, old, young, hot, cold, heavy, white , black ; Numerals, Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions: one, ten, hundred, I, you, your, who, in, out, under, and, but, till, as.These words cannot be avoided by any speaker of English, irrespective of class origin, education, profession, geographical regions, culture, etc.

1 所有的民族特征。 

基础词代表我们身边世界中最常见的事物和非凡的现象。这是所有说那种语言的人都要知道的，这包括和下面方面相关的词： 自然现象：雨雪火，水，太阳月亮春夏风山人的身体和亲属：头足手脸父母兄弟姐妹儿子女儿 动植物：橡树松树草梨苹果树马牛羊猫狗小鸡 动作，尺寸，范围，状态：来去吃听打带好邪恶老年轻热冷重白黑 数词代词介词连接词：一十百我你你的，谁，在里，在外，在下，和，但，直到，如同。 这些词不能被英语会话者回避，不能不考虑词源，教育，专业，地区，文化等等。

2. Stability. Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries, e.g. man, fire, mountain, water, sun ,moon. As they denote the commonest things necessary to life, they are likely to remain unchanged. Stability, however, is only relative. Actually, the basic word stock has been undergoing some changes. Words like arrow, bow, chariot, knight, which were common in the

past, have now moved out of the word stock whereas such words as electricity, machine, car, plane, computer, radio, television which denote new things and modern way of life, have entered the stock. But this change is slow. There are many more words joining in than dropping out.

2.稳定性

基础词已经被使用若干世纪，例如人火山水太阳月亮。由于它们代表生活需要的普遍事物，它们很可能保持不变。稳定性只是相对的，实际上基础词正在进行着变化。象是弓箭马车骑士，过去是常见的，现在都删出了词库，同时象是“电，机器，汽车，飞机，微机无线电电视”这些代表新事物和现代生活方式的词，已经进入了词库，但是这个变化是缓慢的，更多的是加入而不是清除。

3. Productivity. Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words. They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes, e.g. foot: footage, football, footpath, footer, footfall, footed, footloose, footling, footman, footing, footprint and many others. In the same way, dog is the father of doglike, doghood, dogcart, dog-cheap, dog-ear, dog-fall, dogfight, dog-hole, dog-paddle, dog-sleep, to name just a few. 

3.生产力

基础词大多是词根。它们每个都能单独使用同时可以和其他词根或词缀一起构成新词：例如足：片段，足球，人行道，页脚，脚步，立足的，未婚的，愚昧的，男仆，立足点，脚印和许多其他的。同样的，dog是忠实的，狗性，狗车，便宜，折角，平局，混战，狗窝狗刨小憩这些词的父亲，只是说了一点。

4. Polysemy. Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have under gone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous One example will suffice for illustration. The verb take may mean: to move or carry from one place to another; to remove or use without permission or by mistake; to seize or capture; to get for oneself; to get hold of (something) with the hands; to be with the hands; to be willing to accept ; to bear or endure; to need (a stated amount of time); to perform the actions connected with; to test or measure; to write down; to have the intended effect or to work successfully (LDCE). 

4.一词多义

术语基础词的赐予经常拥有一个以上的意思因为它们中的大多数都已经发生了意义变化根据使用，变得一词多义。一个例子将满足解释的需要动词take可能是说：从一地搬运到其他地方；未经允许或者错误的移动或使用，获得抓住，独立自强，用手抓住，愿意接受，忍受，需要（特定数量的时间）；完成相关的行动，测试或者测量，写下，有预想效果或者工作成功。

5. Collocability.

Many words of the basic word stock enter quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings. and the like. Instances are numerous. Take heart for example:

5. 可搭配性

基本单词库中的许多单词都输入了许多固定表达，惯用用法，俗语。等等。实例无数.以heart为例：

a change of heart;  变心 

after one's heart;  称心如意

a heart of gold;  金子般的心

at heart; 十分关心，本质上

break one's heart;  伤了。。。的心 （把。。。的心打碎）

cross one's heart;  发誓（在心上比十字架）；

cry one's heart out;  痛哭欲绝（把。。。的心哭出来）

eat one's heart out;  愁肠寸断; 忧心如焚（把。。。的心吃掉了）

have one’s heart in one's mouth; 提心吊胆（心都到嘴里了）

heart and hand;  全心全意

heart and soul;  全心全意  

One's heart sinks within one;

One's heart sinks 这是内心消沉的意思

take something to heart;  将某事带到心里，走心了

wear one's heart upon one's sleeve; 坦率 （把心都放在袖口了）

with all one's heart  全心全意

and so on. 

Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’ is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others. 

当然，并非基本单词库中的所有单词都具有这些特征。代词和数词享有全民性的用法和稳定性，但在语义上是单调的，并且生产率和可搭配性有限。因此，“所有民族特征”是所有可能将常用词与所有其他词区分开的特征中最重要的。

Words, void of the stated characteristics, do not belong to the common core of the language. They include the following: 

没有陈述的特征的单词不属于该语言的一般核心。 其中包括：

Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine: photoscanning, hepatitis, indigestion, penicillin; in mathematics: algebra, trigonometry, calculus; in music: symphony, orchestra, sonata, concerto; in education: audiovisual, megauniversity, microteaching, etc. 

1. 术语由特定学科和学术领域中使用的技术术语组成 在医学上：光疗，肝炎，消化不良，青霉素； 在数学中：代数，三角学，微积分； 音乐方面：交响乐，乐团，奏鸣曲，协奏曲； 在教育方面：视听，巨型大学，微教学等

Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business: bottom line for ‘inescapable implication, unavoidable result, ultimate version’， ballpark figures for estimate, bargaining chips for ‘an advantage held by any of the parties in a negotiation’; in horse- racing: hold him back for ‘prevent a horse from winning’, hold him in for ‘for horse to run behind at the beginning of a race so as to reserve speed for the finish’; in medicine: paranoid for ‘suspicious, worried’，persona for ‘mannerism’, hypo for ‘ hypodermic syringe’ ; in warfare, buster for ‘bomb’. Generally speaking, people outside the circle have difficulty in understanding such words. 

2. 行话是指专业词汇，特定艺术，科学，行业和专业的成员通过它们相互交流，例如：

在商业中：bottom line 底线 代表‘不可避免的暗示，不可避免的结果，最终版本’ ballpark figures 棒球场观众人数 代表‘估价’，bargaining chip谈判筹码代表‘任何一方在谈判中拥有的优势’

在赛马比赛中：hold him back hold住他 代表阻止马获胜，hold him in 保存实力代表让马开始的时候落后，保持速度来冲刺。

在药学中，paranoid偏执狂代表可疑和担心 persona代表手法hypo指皮卡注射器，战争中，buster指的是炸弹。总体来说，圈外人理解这些词有困难。

3. Slang belongs to the sub-standard language非正规语言，伦敦郊区的语言, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant (shoptalk of any sub group)，jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population. Certain words are labeled ‘slang’ not because of their appearance or Pronunciation but because of their usage. Dough and bread, for instance, are standard when they are used as food terms but slang in the sense of ‘money’. Similarly, grass and pot have standard or formal use meaning, respectively, i.e. ‘type of plant life’ and ‘cooking utensil’，，but slang use meaning ‘marijuana’ Such words as beaver (girl)， smoky, bear ( police), catch (talk to), holler (call), Roger (understand)， X-rays (radar) are all slang words (Reader's Digest 1983). The concept ‘head’ can be referred to by nut, dome, upper, bean, block and so on; in the same way, the meaning of ‘drunk’ can be expressed in as many terms as over three hundred such as elevated, merry, jolly, comfortable, boiled, grass, tight, knocked out, blue-eyed, fried, paralyzed, pickled, stiff, stunned (Qin 1986).

3. 俚语，处在标准通用语言，（包括每人用的非正式词汇）和团体内部语言包括cant(任何下等团体的行话)，jargons,argot,所有这些词汇都和特定的人群联系或者大部分能被特定人群使用。特定词被标示为“俚语”不是因为他们的写法和发音，而是因为他们的用法。面团和面包，例如，是标准的当他们作为食物术语。但是当表示俚语时则表示金钱。类似的，“草”和“壶”相应的有标准或者正式的使用意义，就是“植物的类型”和“烹饪器皿”,但是作为俚语使用意思为“大麻”。那样的词象是海狸（女孩）， 烟雾弥漫，熊（警察），捉住（谈话），叫喊（呼叫）收到（理解），x光（雷达）都是俚语。“头”的概念可以用“坚果”“圆屋顶”“上面的”“豆子”“大块”表示，诸如此类。同样的，“喝醉”可以用超过三百个单词表示，象是“提高”“愉快”“高兴”“舒服”“沸腾”“草率”“紧张”“敲掉”“蓝眼”“薯条”“瘫痪”“腌制”“僵硬”“击昏”。

These examples indicate that much of the slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang enjoys popular use. Almost everyone uses some slang sometimes, and some people use a lot of slang often. Those who don't go to offices or seldom find themselves in formal situations, and those who spend more time with close friends than business associates and mere acquaintances use the most slang, because slang is clourful, blunt, expressive and impressive. As some people claim slang avoids pretensions. It is "language that roll up its sleeves and gets to work. 

这些例子说明很多俚语都是通过改变或延伸现有单词的意义决定的，尽管一些俚语大体来说是新成员。俚语被广泛使用。有时几乎每个人都使用俚语，还有一些人经常使用大量俚语。那些不去办公室或者很少过正常生活的人，还有那些经常和亲近的朋友一起而不是和同事或者极少的熟人在一起的人，使用俚语最多，因为俚语生动，直率，印象深刻而且感人。正如一些人所说的，俚语避免了自负的感觉。他是“卷起袖子立刻能够工作的语言”。

4. Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals, Its use is confined to the sub- cultural groups, and outsiders can hardly understand it, e.g. can-opener (all-purpose key), dip (pick-pocket)， persuader ( dagger) 

4. 黑话通常是指罪犯的黑话。他的应用被限制在下层文化团体，外人很难理解他。例如“罐头起子”（万能钥匙）蘸（偷钱包）说服者（匕首）。

5. Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the di. ale in question. For example, beauty (AusE = excellent, great), chook (AusE = chicken)，cocky (AusE = small farmer), station (AusE = ranch); auld (ScotE = old)，bluid (ScotE = blood), coo (ScotE = cow), hame (ScotE = home), lough (IrE = lake), bog (IrE = swamp) .

5. 方言词

是争论中的方言者所用的词。例如，“美丽”（澳大利亚英语：很好的）“鸡”（澳英语：小鸡）“狂妄”（澳英：小农夫）“站”（澳英：大农场）“老的”（苏格兰英：老的），bluid（苏格兰英语：血）“咕咕”（苏格兰英语：奶牛）“轭”（苏格兰英语：家）lough（爱尔兰英语：湖）“沼泽”（爱尔兰英语：沼泽）

6. Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now. restricted only to specialized or limited use. They are found mainly in older poems, legal documents and religious writing or speech. Here are some examples: thou (you), ye (plural you), thee ( objective you), wilt ( will), brethren (brother), troth (pledge), quoth (said), aught (anything)， hereof (of this, concerning this ), therefrom ( from that or there)， wherein (in what) 

6. 古语

是曾经一度普遍使用现在却被限制使用的词和形式。他们主要出现在古诗，法律文件，宗教作品和演讲中。这里有例子：thou（你）ye（复数你们）thee（宾格你）wilt（will）brethren （兄弟）troth（宣誓）quoth（说）aught（任何事）hereof（于此，不是至此）从此（从那）其中（in what）。

7. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. Here are some examples from 12,000 WORDS:  microelectronics = the branch of electronics dealing with integrated circuits  futurology = a study that deals with future possibilities based on current trends  AIDS = acquired immune deficiency syndrome  E-mail =electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems  

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Internet = an international computer network linking both business and private users freak out = withdraw from reality and society esp. by taking drugs. 

7.新词是新建立的词或者表达，或者已经采用新意的词。这里是从12000 词中找到的例子：

“微电子学“：电子学分支处理综合管路问题。

“未来学”：在现代趋势上针对未来可能性进行的研究

“aids”：获得免疫缺乏综合征

“电子邮件”：电子邮件，通过计算机系统进行的信息传送。

“internet”：连接商业和私人用户的国际计算机网络。